Author: Jonathan Losos Page 58 of 133

Convergent evolution is Anolis Lizards’ middle name, and so it is with great interest that we read two brand-spanking new papers on convergent evolution. The first is by  Arbuckle et al. out of the University of Liverpool. Published in Methods in Ecology and Evolution, the paper describes a new method for quantifying the strength of convergent evolution. You’ll have to read the paper for the details, but the gist of the method is that convergence is greatest either when species are greatly different phenotypically from other species or when the convergent species are distantly related phylogenetically.

And the focal taxon used to demonstrate the method with empirical data? Why, none other than Greater Antillean ecomorphs. The paper found that in “In Anolis lizard data set, perhaps the most notable finding is that ecomorphs differ in the strength of their convergence—grass-bush and trunk-ground anoles stand out as having particularly strong convergence compared to others. Furthermore, some traits are more strongly convergent within some ecomorphs but not others. Therefore, patterns of convergence in particular traits are ecomorph specific.” Specifically, “analyses found the strongest convergence in limb length occurred in grass-bush anoles compared to the other ecomorphs, consistent with Losos’ (1990b, 2009) finding of relationships between limb length and jumping and sprinting (perhaps particularly important for grass-bush anoles). The strong convergence of lamellae number detected in trunkground anoles suggests that there is a notable degree of adaptation in this trait.”

The abstract of the paper is appended at the bottom of this post.

Meanwhile, in a non-anole example, Collar and colleagues, in a paper in the American Naturalist, looked at convergent evolution in snail-eating moray eels. The authors found that the durophagous eels evolved in generally the same direction morphologically relative to their non-snailivorous relatives, but that there was substantial variation among the shell-crackers, actually more variation than seen among their relatives.

The authors explain this “imperfect convergence” in this way:  “we show that following 10 transitions to durophagy (eating hard-shelled prey) in moray eels (Muraenidae), cranial morphology repeatedly evolved toward a novel region of morphological space indicative of enhanced feeding performance on hard prey. Disparity among the resulting 15 durophagous species, however, is greater than disparity among ancestors that fed on large evasive prey, contradicting the pattern expected under convergence. This elevated disparity is a consequence of lineage specific responses to durophagy, in which independent transitions vary in the suites of traits exhibiting the largest changes. Our results reveal a pattern of imperfect convergence, which suggests shared selection may actually promote diversification because lineages often differ in their phenotypic responses to similar selective demands.”

Such imperfect convergence is not unknown among anoles. For example, Langerhans et al. showed that despite the convergence among the ecomorphs, there were also island-specific effects that produced variation among members of an ecomorph. Moreover, a larger scale example is the comparison of mainland and Greater Antillean anoles. Is the lack of convergence due to environmental differences, or is it an example of species evolving different adaptations to living in the same environment?

Exciting times for those of us interested in convergent evolution!

The abstract of the Arbuckle et al. paper:

Read More

And it’s a looker!

The species, described recently in Amphibian & Reptile Conservation by Fernando Ayala-Varela and colleagues, comes from the western slope of the Andes in Ecuador. In appearance, it’s most similar to A. gemmosus, which occurs to the north. Detailed examination shows it to be most phenotypically similar to that species and A. otongae, and DNA analysis indicates that A. gemmosus is its sister taxon.

Check out the paper, which has lots of lovely photos not only of the new species, but of some of the species with which it is sympatric.

Courtesy Nirvana Reptiles

Gunther Köhler has just published a paper in Zootaxa describing the many characters used in anole species descriptions. Here’s how he explains the endeavor:

“Anolis are important research organisms and many articles are published every year dealing with different aspects of the biology of these lizards. However, at this point we still lack detailed and standardized descriptions of all recognized species of Anolis. The species descriptions found in original descriptions, reviews of species groups, or faunal treatments are extremely heterogeneous in regard to content, usage of terms, semantic issues, and characters included. For example, some authors (e.g., Underwood & Williams 1959; Savage & Villa 1986; Köhler 2008) count the number of subdigital lamellae under Phalanges II–IV whereas others (e.g., Schwartz 1973; Williams 1995; Poe et al. 2012) report only the lamellae under Phalanges II and III. Even when the same characters are reported, often differences in definitions are evident with different authors scoring the same character differently, i.e., having different threshold levels for scoring qualitative characters (e.g., whether to consider a scale to be smooth, faintly, or weakly keeled, or not, slightly or distinctly enlarged relative to adjacent scales). Also, the way the data are generated can differ widely depending on the applied methodology. In 1995, Williams provided definitions for 37 morphological characters intended for usage in a computerized key for anoles. Williams’ (1995) approach aimed mostly to bring definitions and encodings of morphological characters usable in a computer program. Therefore, he was forced to simplify many of the included character states thereby masking the extent of variation actually observed in the genus Anolis. This article aims to provide definitions of external morphological characters that are useful in Anolis taxonomy with the goal of establishing a reference for future taxonomic work with these lizards. I am confident that a description containing the set of characters defined here will be reasonably complete for the majority of species. In species that show special morphological differentiations (such as the rostral appendage in A. proboscis), these special features need to be addressed of course. I have included many images illustrating the variation in the characters discussed, although I do not attempt to provide a comprehensive review of the variation in external morphology in anoles.”

A variety of morphometric characters from snout-vent length and head width to postcloacal scale width. Here’s one as an example:

Diameter of parietal scale. The longitudinal (LDP) and transverse (TDP) diameters of the parietal scale are measured. LDP and TDP both are measured at the greatest length and width, respectively. Slender projections of the parietal scale should be ignored in cases where these are beyond the normal concave or convex outline of the scale.

The heart of the paper is a description of a large number of scalation characters and their various alternative states. For example:

Condition of supraocular scales (CSO). These vary from smooth or rugose to weakly or strongly keeled; keeling can be uni- or multicarinate. Examples are given in Fig. 12.

Condition of circumorbital scales (COS). In many species of anoles, a row of small scales separates the enlarged supraocular scales from the scales of the supraorbital semicircles. Thus, this character refers basically to the scales situated medially to the enlarged supraocular scales; laterally to the enlarged supraocular scales usually numerous small scales are present without differentiated scales that can be identified as circumorbitals. Considerable intra- and interspecific variation can be observed in this character as exemplified in Anolis dunni (Fig. 13) with the circumorbital series varying from complete (one or more rows of scales) to incomplete or absent. Whenever one or more enlarged supraocular scales are in contact with scales of the supraorbital semicircles, the circumorbital series are incomplete or absent.

And one more set of examples:

Number of scales between supraorbital semicircles (IO). In most species of anoles a pair of semicircular series of enlarged scales is present in the frontal region between the supraocular discs. The minimum number of scales between the supraorbital semicircles is determined (i.e., usually at the narrowest point; Fig. 22).

Number of scales between supraorbital semicircles and interparietal plate (IP/IO). The minimum number of scales between the supraorbital semicircles and the interparietal plate is determined (Fig. 22). This character obviously is ignored in species that lack a differentiated interparietal plate (e.g., Fig. 22B).

Size of scales adjacent to interparietal plate (ScIP). The relative size of the scales surrounding the interparietal plate is noted. In some species the size of the scales anterior to the interparietal plate differs from those situated posteriorly to it. See examples in Fig. 22.

This looks to be a very useful contribution, particularly as the number of newly described anoles continues to rise.

Several days ago, I reported on skeletal anomalies from this year’s trip to the Bahamas and wondered what cool stuff we might see next. Much to my surprise, the next surprise turned up the very next day, in the form of Mexican anole maestro Levi Gray, making his first appearance in the Caribbean. Welcome to the big leagues, Levi!

The next night, Levi strolled down to our place to do some night herping–and wouldn’t you know?–en route the very first Anolis smaragdinus he had ever seen turned out to be of the three-footed variety. Add another example to our parade of limb-reduced anoles.

Later on, while out looking for more greens, we came across this pair of lizards snoozing.

But closer examination shows that that’s not a pair, but a trio, with one anole sleeping on top of another. Now, that’s something I’ve never seen before!

Lastly, my favorite shots of the trip, now finished.

Anolis sagrei. Photo by Jonathan Losos

Anolis distichus. Photo Jonathan Losos

Anolis smaragdinus. Photo by Jonathan Losos

…can mean only one thing: Anolis allisoni. I’ve been trawling through twitter today. Searching on “anole” is no longer useful–the term’s been hijacked by very exuberant tweeters talking about the comic book character’s latest sexploits, but a search on “Anolis” still yields dividends. Including a nice article, in Spanish, on A. allisoni from the Cayos Cochinos off the coast of Honduras (discussed previously on AA). Included are some nice photos, like the one above, and several videos.

Or should I say, festive anole? I’ve come to realize that the Anolis sagrei re-branding scheme is taking off. In any case, Janson Jones has a nice, short festive anole story on today’s issue of Dust Tracks on the Web. Head over there to check it out.

We’re back in the Bahamas for our yearly trip monitoring evolution of brown anoles on small islands (most recently reported on a year ago).  These populations were hammered by Hurricanes Irene and Sandy in 2011 and 2012, and are just now recovering. Most exciting to us was one population reduced to two individuals, which seemed to disappear during the course of our visit last year. Had the population gone extinct? No–we’ve found 14 lizards there this far. Hooray.

Part of what we do is capture lizards, bring them back to the field lab, and x-ray them to measure their morphology, to see how morphology changes from one year to the next. And while doing so, we see all kinds of interesting anomalies. For example, check out the left hind leg of this female–she’s missing most of the toes on that foot. Turns out that that lizards lacking the full complement of digits is not very unusual (check out this post from several years ago on more severe mutilations).

But this year we’ve had some more unusual sightings. Check out the left knee of the male below. Clearly, he broke his femur and it grew back oddly. Yet, it works–this guy was fat and sassy. It would seem amazing that a lizard could break its femur and survive, but here’s the proof.

And check out the tail on this guy. Looks wacky, right?

The x-ray, however, doesn’t do it justice. It’s not only wickedly bent to the side, but also upwards!

Photo by Manuel Leal

Who knows what we’ll find tomorrow?

Anolis limon on top, and the closely related A. chocorum (middle) and A. ibanezi (bottom).

The parade of new anoles continues, and this one is beautiful! Velasco and Hurtado- Gómez, in a new paper in Zootaxa, describe a new species of green anole from northwestern Colombia, Anolis limon. The species is closely related to other green lovelies, but differs in dewlap color and a few other characteristics.

As we have chronicled in these pages, the number of anole species continues to rise, up to 388 according to these authors. More importantly, Colombia—lucky place—is the global leader in anoles, with 75 species.

Here’s the etymology of the name: “The specific name limon makes reference to the resemblance of the body color of the females to the green color of the fruits of the lemon tree (Citrus x lemon).”

And the figure below reveals the distribution of the new species and others.

httpv://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zDtDtn5n8-A

A new movie on snake research, an Alex Pyron production, features not only great snake footage, but cameo appearances by anoles and Frank Burbrink explaining how he got out of prison and into herpetology (see disclaimer below), as well as wildfires in the Brazilian Cerrado, and plenty of other frogs, lizards, and rock and roll music.

Alex explains: “Most people think of science as being fairly boring most of the time. They are probably right. However, readers of this page are more likely familiar with another side of the story. Those of us who do field work are lucky enough to get paid to flip rocks for a living, chasing after the most exciting creatures on the planet. Books like Snakes and Snake Hunting and The Snake Charmer captured some of this adventure, and gave many of us an early glimpse into the future careers that awaited us. Bringing this magic to the silver screen is snakehandlers: these signs shall follow them, the new documentary about field herpetology that you never knew you needed (or wanted).

Shot across one year, snakehandlers follows Alex Pyron and a rotating band of pirate misfits across the U.S., Panama, Ecuador, and Brazil in search of tissue samples from the rarest (and commonest) herps around, to fuel the fires of our phylogenetic frenzy. Along the way, a wildfire rips across the Brazilian Cerrado, the clouds boil in the Northern Andes, Frank Burbrink shares his hard-luck tale of crime and punishment on the road to redemption from state prison to evolutionary biology*, famous herpetologists from the past speak to us across time, and new species are discovered left and right.

At its core, snakehandlers tries to answer the question of why we work with snakes to begin with. Herpetologists from every corner share their stories about the interests and experiences that brought them into the field. On the whole, though, the question remains unanswered; how could it be? Why do we do something as crazy and absurd as handle snakes or chase anoles? Watch snakehandlers and see if you can figure that out for yourself, in a movie that does for snakes what Plan 9 did for Outer Space.

As a plus (or a main attraction) for readers of Anole Annals, have fun spotting at least six species of Anolis from North, Central, and South America! Happy herping…

*The producers of snakehandlers were unable to verify the accuracy of all participant interviews.”